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作通型配列

作通型语言的“作格阵线” A/S=P

作通型配列Ergative–absolutive alignment),也称为作通格配列施通格配列作格配列施格配列能格配列,是一類配列方式,即在句法形态上,将不及物动词的单一变元和及物动词的受事论元同等对待(S=P),而区别对待及物动词施事论元(A[1]:110。作通型配列可以在形态(编码性质)和句法(表现性质)两方面呈现[2][3],一方面在综合语中常藉由格标记来表示;另一方面,一些语言的句法也会呈现作通型配列,但是十分罕见。[4][5]此外,句法上作通型语言通常不是中心词前置就是中心词后置,且罕见SVO语序[6]呈现这种配列的语言称为作通格语言或者作格语言施格语言能格语言巴斯克語格鲁吉亚语玛雅语藏语,和一些印欧语库尔德语印地语等,甚至闪语族阿拉姆语里面都存在这种配列。有些假说里面原始印欧语也被划为作通型语言,但仍十分有争议。[7]

编码性质

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格标记

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如果一门语言有形态上的格变化,那么谓语中心词的论元一般会如下标记:

  • 不及物动词的单一核心变元(S)和及物动词的受事论元(P)一同标记为通格S=P);
  • 动词的施事论元(标记为A)则区别对待,将它标记为作格[8]

动词一致

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如果没有形态上的格变化,作通型配列还能通过其他形态手段呈现,如动词的显在一致。例如,阿布哈兹语和大部分玛雅语没有形态上的作格标记,但是它们可以通过动词的一致结构来呈现作格。在作通一致的语言里,通格往往不被标记(有些例外,如尼亚斯语和特拉帕尼科语英语Tlapanec language[9]),如巴斯克語[10]

1a. Martin etorri da.
马丁 -ABS 到达.PERF
S 通格
马丁已经到了。
1b. Martin -ek Diego ikusi du.
马丁 -ERG 迪亚戈 -ABS 见.PERF
A 作格 P 通格
马丁见过迪亚戈。

上例的 是一个零形式英语Null_morpheme,代表不被标记的通格。作格标记在辅音后作 -ek,而在元音后作 -k。另外,巴斯克语里面大多数名词短语都需要由一个限定词限定,一般单数-a复数-ak只能标记在限定词上。于是便有如下变位(以“人”gizon 为例)[10]

gizon 通格 作格
单数 gizon-a gizon-ak
人-DET.SING.ABS 人-DET.SING.ERG
复数 gizon-ak gizon-ek
人-DET.PL.ABS 人-DET.PL.ERG

表现性质

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作通型配列也可以通过句法呈现。但是作通型句法配列非常罕见,大多数作通格语言都是形态上而非句法上呈作通型配列。与词法学一样,句法配列可以放在一个连续统一体上,因此某些句法操作可能会生成主宾型配列,而其他的则可以生成作通型配列;其程度取决于有多少句法操作将论元 S 和 P 同等对待。

理论上,作通型配列可以在语序(尤其是论元与动词的前后关系)、句法枢纽、关系子句主從複合、转换指称等方面呈现。

等位省并

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一些作通格语言的配列可以通过等位省并体现。如澳洲原住民的迪尔巴尔语,省略後句同定论元时,只有论元 S 和 P 可以省略,论元 A 不可以省略。[4]

2a. ŋumai banaga-nyu yabu -ŋgu ____i bura-n
父亲 -ABS 来-PST 母亲 -ERG 见-PST
S 通格 A 作格 P 通格
父亲回来了,然后母亲见到了(父亲)。
2b.* ŋumai banaga-nyu ____i yabu bura-n
父亲 -ABS 来-PST 母亲 -ABS 见-PST
S 通格 A 作格 P 通格
父亲回来了,然后(父亲)见到了母亲。

反之如英语主宾型),省略後句同定论元时,只有论元 S 和 A 可以省略,论元 P 不可以省略。

3a. Fatheri returned and ____i saw mother.
父亲 回来-PST 见.PST 母亲
S 主格 A 主格 P 宾格
父亲回来了,然后(父亲)见到了母亲。
3b.* Fatheri returned and mother saw ____i.
父亲 回来-PST 见.PST
S 主格 A 主格 P 宾格
父亲回来了,然后母亲见到了(父亲)。

但实际上,缺乏形态手段、主要靠语序表达句法功能的语言大部分都属于主宾型语言,作通型语言极其罕见,迪尔巴尔语算是一个特例。[4][5]如果观察主语的一些普遍特征,会发现有些语言无论在形态学还是句法学上都是完美的主宾格语言,但完美的作通格语言却未曾被发现。[4]

部分作格性

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大部分作通型语言都具有部分作格性(split ergativity),即在某些状況下呈现作通型配列的特性,但在某些状況下,如特定的人称等,却呈现主宾型配列等其他配列的特性。巴斯克語是少有的、在格标记和动词一致上呈现完整作通型配列的语言,不过它在句法配列上则是主宾型的。[11]

任意作格性

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很多作通型语言也具有任意作格性(optional ergativity),即作格标记不会在所有情况下强制出现。但任意作格性并非真正任意,作格显在标记与否受语义和语用影响。任意作格性不像部分作格性那样有规律。[12]

任意作格性会受以下因素影响[12]

  • 有生性,有生的主语更倾向于标记作格
  • 动词语义,具有及物性的动词更倾向于标记作格
  • 语法结构,尤其是 [--]

一些澳大利亚原住民语言藏语等拥有任意作格性。[13]

分布

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各种配列类型在全世界的分布

作通型语言大致分布于美索不达米亚、高加索、美洲、青藏高原和澳大利亚等地区。

世界各区域作通型语言的例子:[14]

北美洲: 大洋洲: 南美洲:
欧洲: 非洲: 亚洲:

参见

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参考文献

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  1. ^ Comrie, Bernard. Language Universals and Linguistic Typology: Syntax and Morphology. University of Chicago Press. 1989. ISBN 0226114333. 
  2. ^ Rude, Noel. (1983). Ergativity and the active-stative typology in Loma. Studies in African Linguistics 14 (3): 265-283.
  3. ^ Vydrin, Valentin. (2011). Ergative/Absolutive and Active/Stative alignment in West Africa:The case of Southwestern Mande. Studies in Language 35 (2): 409-443.
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Dixon, R. M. W. 1994. Ergativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 陆丙甫. 罗彬彬. 形态与语序. 语文研究. 2018, 2 (147). 
  6. ^ Institut für Linguistik - Startseite. linguistik.philol.uni-leipzig.de. [2019-05-21]. (原始内容存档于2020-07-13). 
  7. ^ Bavant, Marc. Proto-Indo-European Ergativity... Still To Be Discussed. Poznań Studies in Contemporary Linguistics. 2008, 44 (4): 433–447. doi:10.2478/v10010-008-0022-y. 
  8. ^ Friend, Some Syntactic and Morphological Features of Suleimaniye Kurdish, UCLA, 1985
  9. ^ Donohue, Mark (2008). "Semantic alignment systems: what's what, and what's not". In Donohue, Mark & Søren Wichmann, eds. (2008). The Typology of Semantic Alignment. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  10. ^ 10.0 10.1 King, Alan R. The Basque Language: A Practical Introduction. Reno: University of Nevada Press.
  11. ^ The syntax and morphology of Basque (PDF). IKER. [2019-05-21]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-05-19). 
  12. ^ 12.0 12.1 McGregor, William. Optional ergative case marking systems in a typological-semiotic perspective. Lingua. 2010, (120): 1610–1636. 
  13. ^ McGregor (2010) Optional ergative case marking systems in a typological-semiotic perspective. Lingua 120: 1610–1636
  14. ^ Dryer, Matthew S. & Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). (2011) "The World Atlas of Language Structures Online". Munich: Max Planck Digital Library. Available online at WALS页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆
  15. ^ Ergativity, by R. M. W. Dixon, Cambridge Studies in Linguistics, vol. 69, 1994.
  16. ^ Grenoble, L.A. Language Policy in the Soviet Union. Springer Science & Business Media. 2006 [2019-05-21]. ISBN 0306480832. (原始内容存档于2020-05-19). 
  17. ^ de Hoop, Helen; de Swart, Peter (编). Differential Subject Marking. Springer. 2007. ISBN 1402064977. 
  18. ^ Archived copy (PDF). [2012-11-14]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2013-04-12).  (Aniko Csirmaz and Markéta Ceplová, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Zazaki is an ergative language)
  19. ^ http://roa.rutgers.edu/files/744-0605/744-ARKADIEV-0-0.PDF页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) (Zazaki is an ergative language, page 17-18)
  20. ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=UQKCofxuhlMC&pg=PA166页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) (zazaki is ergative)
  21. ^ Géraldine Walther. A Derivational Account for Sorani Kurdish Passives. ResearchGate. 1 January 2011 [10 May 2016]. (原始内容存档于2019-06-05). 
  22. ^ What Sorani Kurdish Absolute Prepositions Tell Us about Cliticization - Kurdish Academy of Language. kurdishacademy.org. [10 May 2016]. (原始内容存档于2013-07-28). 
  23. ^ 存档副本. [2019-05-21]. (原始内容存档于2020-07-18). 
  24. ^ Archived copy (PDF). [2012-11-14]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2013-04-12).  (Sorani is ergative, page 255)
  25. ^ Archived copy (PDF). [2012-11-14]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2013-04-12).  (kurmanji is ergative)
  26. ^ The acquisition of split-ergativity in Kurmanji Kurdish. utexas.edu. [10 May 2016]. (原始内容存档于2016-03-15). 
  27. ^ 存档副本 (PDF). [2019-05-21]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-05-19). 

延伸阅读

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  • Anderson, Stephen. (1976). On the notion of subject in ergative languages. In C. Li. (Ed.), Subject and topic (pp. 1–24). New York: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-447350-4.
  • Anderson, Stephen R. (1985). Inflectional morphology. In T. Shopen (Ed.), Language typology and syntactic description: Grammatical categories and the lexicon (Vol. 3, pp. 150–201). Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press. ISBN 0-521-58158-3.
  • Comrie, Bernard. (1978). Ergativity. In W. P. Lehmann (Ed.), Syntactic typology: Studies in the phenomenology of language (pp. 329–394). Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-77545-8.
  • Coon, Jessica, Diane Massam and Lisa deMena Travis. (Eds.). (2017). The Oxford handbook of ergativity. Oxford University Press.
  • Dixon, R. M. W. (1979). Ergativity. Language, 55 (1), 59-138. (Revised as Dixon 1994).
  • Dixon, R. M. W. (Ed.) (1987). Studies in ergativity. Amsterdam: North-Holland. ISBN 0-444-70275-X.
  • Dixon, R. M. W. Searching for Aboriginal Languages: Memoirs of a Field Worker. Cambridge University Press. 2011 [2019-05-21]. ISBN 978-1-108-02504-1. (原始内容存档于2020-05-19). 
  • Foley, William; & Van Valin, Robert. (1984). Functional syntax and universal grammar. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-25956-8.
  • Iliev, Ivan G. (2007) On the Nature of Grammatical Case ... (Case and Vocativeness)页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆
  • Kroeger, Paul. (1993). Phrase structure and grammatical relations in Tagalog. Stanford: CSLI. ISBN 0-937073-86-5.
  • Legate, Julie Anne. (2008). Morphological and Abstract Case. Linguistic Inquiry 39.1: 55-101.
  • Mallinson, Graham; & Blake, Barry J. (1981). Agent and patient marking. Language typology: Cross-linguistic studies in syntax (Chap. 2, pp. 39–120). North-Holland linguistic series. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.
  • McGregor, William B. (2010). Optional ergative case marking systems in a typological-semiotic perspective. Lingua 120: 1610–1636.
  • Plank, Frans. (Ed.). (1979). Ergativity: Towards a theory of grammatical relations. London: Academic Press.
  • Rude, Noel. (1983). Ergativity and the active-stative typology in Loma. Studies in African Linguistics 14 (3): 265-283.
  • Schachter, Paul. (1976). The subject in Philippine languages: Actor, topic, actor-topic, or none of the above. In C. Li. (Ed.), Subject and topic (pp. 491–518). New York: Academic Press.
  • Schachter, Paul. (1977). Reference-related and role-related properties of subjects. In P. Cole & J. Sadock (Eds.), Syntax and semantics: Grammatical relations (Vol. 8, pp. 279–306). New York: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-613508-8.
  • Silverstein, Michael. (1976). Hierarchy of Features and Ergativity. In R.M.W. Dixon (ed.) Grammatical Categories in Australian Languages (pp. 112–171). New Jersey: Humanities Press. ISBN 0-391-00694-0. Reprinted in Pieter Muysken and Henk van Riemsdijk (eds.), Features and Projections (pp. 163–232). Dordrecht: Foris. ISBN 90-6765-144-3.
  • Verbeke, Saartje. 2013. Alignment and ergativity in new Indo-Aryan languages. Berlin: de Gruyter.
  • Vydrin, Valentin. (2011). Ergative/Absolutive and Active/Stative alignment in West Africa:The case of Southwestern Mande. Studies in Language 35 (2): 409-443.

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作通型配列
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