User:Min968/List of emperors of the Ming dynasty
The emperors of the Ming dynasty, who were all members of the House of Zhu, ruled China from 1368 to 1644. The Ming dynasty succeeded the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. Its founder, Zhu Yuanzhang, was one of the leaders of the Red Turban peasant rebellion. Despite humble beginnings, he successfully built his own state, defeated other rebel leaders, and drove the Mongols out of China. On Chinese New Year in 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang declared the establishment of a new dynasty and declared himself its first emperor.
A total of sixteen emperors ruled over China proper for 276 years. During their reign, China experienced a long period of economic growth and political stability.[1][2]
In the late 1620s, a peasant uprising erupted in northern China. The weakened Ming government was unable to suppress it, and in 1644, the rebels even captured Beijing, leading to the Chongzhen Emperor's suicide. To defeat the rebels, the government troops in the north invited the Manchu-led Eight Banner armies of the Qing dynasty to come to the Central Plains. The Manchus then occupied northern China in the same year.[3]
Despite losing control of the north, members of the Ming imperial family continued to rule over the south of the country. However, they were gradually pushed out by the Manchus until the last Ming emperor, Zhu Youlang, was executed in 1662 in Burma. Later historians referred to the emperors of the Ming regimes in southern China as the rulers of the Southern Ming dynasty.[4][3]
The Ming emperors resided in the Forbidden City, a 72-hectare complex of palaces and buildings in Beijing. Prior to 1420, the emperors' residence was located in a similar complex in Nanjing.[5]
Succession
[编辑]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Portrait_officiel_de_l%27empereur_Jiajing.jpg/180px-Portrait_officiel_de_l%27empereur_Jiajing.jpg)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Flickr_-_archer10_%28Dennis%29_-_China-6624.jpg/180px-Flickr_-_archer10_%28Dennis%29_-_China-6624.jpg)
The emperors inherited the throne according to the principle of primogeniture; according to the Hongwu Emperor's decision, the successor to the throne was always the eldest son of the emperor and empress, or his heir if he had none, followed by younger sons of the empress. However, sons of concubines were excluded from the line of succession. It was a strict rule that conservative officials strongly insisted on following. Even the Wanli Emperor, who for two decades tried to appoint his third son, Zhu Changxun, as crown prince, was eventually forced to step down and appoint his eldest son, the future Taichang Emperor.[7] The only successful violator of the succession rules was the Yongle Emperor, the third emperor of the dynasty. He gained power in a three-year civil war against his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor.[8]
Powers
[编辑]In theory, the emperor held ultimate authority over all officials and generals, and the entire country was expected to obey his decrees. However, this power came at a cost, as the Hongwu Emperor tightly controlled his power through numerous purges.[9] As the dynasty progressed, the subsequent emperors lacked the decisiveness of their founder and were subject to traditional limitations.[10] The emperor was not expected to make independent decisions regarding the direction of the country.[11] Instead, memoranda and demands were presented to them with proposed solutions. The emperor's role was to either confirm the submitted proposals or negotiate an alternative solution with the submitters.[11] Similarly, the emperors appointed officials and generals based on recommendations from the Ministry of Personnel or the Ministry of War. In the case of high dignitaries, the ruler was given a choice between two to three candidates.[11] Major issues were typically discussed at official audiences or informal meetings, and it was necessary to reach a broad consensus among court dignitaries before making any significant decisions.[10]
Titles and names
[编辑]The emperor's personal name was tabooed after his ascension to the throne. The emperor was referred to and addressed with titles of varying degrees of formality—Your Majesty (Template:Zhi; Bixia), His Majesty the Emperor (Template:Zhi huangshang, or simply Template:Zhi shang).[12] After death, the emperor received an honorary posthumous name, usually consisting of nineteen characters for Ming emperors, but for example, the founder of the dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor, was honored with a name of twenty-three characters.[13] Another name given posthumously was the temple name, used for ceremonies in the ancestral temple of the dynasty.[14]
Due to the repetition of the same temple and posthumous names for emperors of different dynasties, the dynasty name is used as a differentiator when necessary. For example, the Hongwu Emperor is frequently referred to as "Ming Taizu".[14]
The emperor's era name or reign name was chosen at the beginning of his reign to reflect the political, economic, and/or social landscapes at the time. All Ming emperors, except for Emperor Yingzong, only declared one during their reign. As a result, they are commonly referred to by the name of their era.[14]
Household and court
[编辑]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%AE%AB%E5%9F%8E%E5%9B%BE%E8%BD%B4.jpg/180px-%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%AE%AB%E5%9F%8E%E5%9B%BE%E8%BD%B4.jpg)
The emperor's palace, known as the "Forbidden City", was situated in the heart of the imperial city. It covered a rectangular area of approximately 1 kilometer from North to South and 760 meters from East to West, and was protected by wide walls and moats filled with water. The main entrance, the Gate of Accepting Heavenly Mandate, was located to the south and opened onto a vast inner courtyard. The North side was flanked by the Meridian Gate. Behind this gate was the actual imperial residence, which was dominated by the Hall of Revering Heaven where important receptions and ceremonies took place. Other smaller halls were used as reception areas and for conducting rituals. A final inner enclosure separated the emperor's private residence, the Palace of Heavenly Purity, from the rest of the palace. This area also housed the residences of the empress, concubines, and eunuchs, and was surrounded by gardens.[16]
The emperor, known as the "Son of Heaven", spent the majority of his life within the walls of the Forbidden City. He was viewed as the intermediary between humans and the heavens, and was responsible for conducting numerous rituals to honor the supreme deities who safeguarded the empire, including the heavens, the earth, and the imperial ancestors. Additionally, he participated in various ceremonies to commemorate significant events in both his own life and that of the empire, such as the promotion of an heir, a concubine, the granting of fiefs, the reception of ambassadors, and metropolitan exams. During his daily audiences, his subjects were expected to demonstrate their submission by prostrating themselves before him. However, in reality, the majority of decisions were made by the Grand Secretariat and the ministries. When he traveled, he was accompanied by an impressive entourage and protected by his imperial guard.[17]
The Forbidden City was home to a large population, including the reigning empress (as there could only be one), who resided in a vast hall and participated in several major rituals. Alongside her, the emperor had numerous concubines who held lower ranks. The heir to the throne was typically the son of the empress, and if she did not have a son, then the son of a concubine would inherit. The heir was trained for his future role from a young age, while his brothers were given important titles and often sent to distant fiefs to prevent them from posing a threat to the emperor's power. In exchange, they were supported by the state treasury. However, by the end of the dynasty, the imperial family had grown so large that it became a significant expense for the government. The daily service of the emperor and his empress and concubines was carried out by eunuchs, who could develop close relationships with the imperial family and wield considerable political power. Under weaker emperors, eunuchs were able to accumulate wealth and influence, causing scandal. Some, such as Wei Zhongxian and Liu Jin, even became de facto rulers of the empire.[18]
Burial traditions
[编辑]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Ming_Tombs_-_panoramio.jpg/300px-Ming_Tombs_-_panoramio.jpg)
The death of an emperor was a significant event in both the political and ritual life of the empire. The Ming emperors followed the tradition of constructing grand funerary complexes for themselves and their families. The Hongwu Emperor was buried at the Xiao Mausoleum near Nanjing, while the Jianwen Emperor did not receive an official burial. After the capital was relocated under the Yongle Emperor, the remaining emperors were buried at the mountainous site of Thirteen Ming tombs, located northwest of Beijing (except for the Jingtai Emperor, who was considered a usurper and buried elsewhere). The layout of the site, which was carefully planned from the beginning, mirrored that of ancient imperial funerary complexes. The main entrance was situated between two large hills and marked by the Great Red Gate. Further in, the Shengong Shengde Stele Pavilion, inside which a stele was located, served as the entrance to the "Spirit Way". This road was lined by statues of guardian animals and officials and was closed by the Gate of Dragon and Phoenix. Beyond this point, the funerary park proper began, containing the tombs of the thirteen emperors who were buried there. The Chang Mausoleum of the Yongle Emperor occupy a central position. The tomb was located under a large tumulus, with a sacred complex consisting of three successive courtyards arranged to the south. The tomb of the Wanli Emperor, Ding Mausoleum, was excavated and contained five large funerary chambers. The most significant of these chambers, located to the north, held the burials of the emperor and his two empresses. Approximately 3,000 objects were unearthed during the excavation, which were originally arranged in about twenty lacquer chests of exceptional craftsmanship. One of the most magnificent items discovered was an empress crown adorned with over 5,000 pearls.[20]
List of emperors
[编辑]Below is a complete list of the emperors of the Ming dynasty, including their personal, temple, posthumous, and era names. The longest-reigning emperor of the dynasty was the Wanli Emperor, who ruled for 48 years (r. 1572–1620); the shortest was his successor, the Taichang Emperor, who ruled for only 29 days in 1620. The youngest ruler at the time of his ascension was Emperor Yingzong, who was only 9 years old, while the oldest ruler at the time of his death was the Hongwu Emperor, who died at the age of 71.[21]
Ming dynasty
[编辑]Personal name[13] | Portrait | Lifespan[22] | Reign[22] | Era name[13][22] | Posthumous name[13][a] | Temple name[13] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Zhu Yuanzhang Template:Zhi |
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21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398 |
23 January 1368 – 24 June 1398 |
Hongwu Template:Zhi 23 January 1368 – 5 February 1399 (22 January 1403)[b] |
Emperor Gao Template:Zhi |
Taizu Template:Zhi |
Zhu Yunwen Template:Zhi |
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5 December 1377 – 13 July 1402 |
30 June 1398 – 13 July 1402 |
Jianwen Template:Zhi 6 February 1399 – 13 July 1402 |
Emperor Hui Template:Zhi |
– [b] |
Zhu Di Template:Zhi |
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2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424 |
17 July 1402 – 12 August 1424 |
Yongle Template:Zhi 23 January 1403 – 19 January 1425 |
Emperor Wen Template:Zhi |
Taizong, Template:Zhi, since 1538 Chengzu, Template:Zhi |
Zhu Gaochi Template:Zhi |
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16 August 1378 – 29 May 1425 |
12 August 1424 – 29 May 1425 |
Hongxi Template:Zhi 20 January 1425 – 7 February 1426 |
Emperor Zhao Template:Zhi |
Renzong Template:Zhi |
Zhu Zhanji Template:Zhi |
![]() |
16 March 1399 – 31 January 1435 |
29 May 1425 – 31 January 1435 |
Xuande Template:Zhi 8 February 1426 – 17 January 1436 |
Emperor Zhang Template:Zhi |
Xuanzong Template:Zhi |
Zhu Qizhen Template:Zhi |
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29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464 |
31 January 1435 – 22 September 1449 |
Zhengtong Template:Zhi 18 January 1436 – 13 January 1450 |
Emperor Rui Template:Zhi |
Yingzong Template:Zhi |
11 February 1457 – 23 February 1464 |
Tianshun[c] Template:Zhi 11 February 1457 – 26 January 1465 | |||||
Zhu Qiyu Template:Zhi |
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21 September 1428 – 14 March 1457 |
22 September 1449 – 11 February 1457 |
Jingtai Template:Zhi 14 January 1450 – 11 February 1457 |
Emperor Jing Template:Zhi |
Daizong Template:Zhi |
Zhu Jianshen Template:Zhi |
![]() |
9 December 1447 – 9 September 1487 |
23 February 1464 – 9 September 1487 |
Chenghua Template:Zhi 27 January 1465 – 13 January 1488 |
Emperor Chun Template:Zhi |
Xianzong Template:Zhi |
Zhu Youcheng Template:Zhi |
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30 July 1470 – 8 June 1505 |
9 September 1487 – 8 June 1505 |
Hongzhi Template:Zhi 14 January 1488 – 23 January 1506 |
Emperor Jing Template:Zhi |
Xiaozong Template:Zhi |
Zhu Houzhao Template:Zhi |
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26 October 1491 – 20 April 1521 |
8 June 1505 – 20 April 1521 |
Zhengde]] Template:Zhi 27 January 1522 – 27 January 1522 |
Emperor Yi Template:Zhi |
Wuzong Template:Zhi |
Zhu Houcong Template:Zhi |
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16 September 1507 – 23 January 1567 |
27 May 1521 – 23 January 1567 |
Jiajing Template:Zhi 28 January 1522 – 8 February 1567 |
Emperor Su Template:Zhi |
Shizong Template:Zhi |
Zhu Zaiji Template:Zhi |
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4 March 1537 – 5 July 1572 |
23 January 1567 – 5 July 1572 |
Longqing Template:Zhi 9 February 1567 – 1 February 1573 |
Emperor Zhuang Template:Zhi |
Muzong Template:Zhi |
Zhu Yijun Template:Zhi |
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4 September 1563 – 18 August 1620 |
5 July 1572 – 18 August 1620 |
Wanli Template:Zhi 2 February 1573 – 27 August 1620 |
Emperor Xian Template:Zhi |
Shenzong Template:Zhi |
Zhu Changluo Template:Zhi |
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28 August 1582 – 26 September 1620 |
28 August – 26 September 1620 |
Taichang Template:Zhi 28 August 1620 – 21 January 1621 |
Emperor Zhen Template:Zhi |
Guangzong Template:Zhi |
Zhu Youjiao Template:Zhi |
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23 December 1605 – 30 September 1627 |
26 September 1620 – 30 September 1627 |
Tianqi Template:Zhi 22 January 1621 – 4 February 1628 |
Emperor Zhe Template:Zhi |
Xizong Template:Zhi |
Zhu Youjian Template:Zhi |
![]() |
6 February 1611 – 25 April 1644[26] |
2 October 1627 – 25 April 1644[26] |
Chongzhen Template:Zhi 5 February 1628 – 25 April 1644 |
Emperor Zhuanglie Min Template:Zhi |
Sizong Template:Zhi |
Southern Ming
[编辑]Title before accession to the throne[27] | Personal name[27] | Lifespan | Era name[27] | Title Reign[28] |
Temple name[28] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Prince of Fu Template:Zhi |
Zhu Yousong Template:Zhi |
5 September 1607 – 23 May 1646 |
Hongguang Template:Zhi 28 January 1645 – 17 August 1645 |
Emperor 19 June 1644 – 15 June 1645 |
Anzong Template:Zhi |
Prince of Lu (Luh)[d] Template:Zhi |
Zhu Changfang Template:Zhi |
1608 – 23 May 1646 |
– [e] | Regent 1 July – 6 July 1645 |
– |
Prince of Tang Template:Zhi |
Zhu Yujian Template:Zhi |
25 May 1602[22] – 6 October 1646[22] |
Longwu Template:Zhi 18 August 1645 – 4 February 1647 |
Emperor 18 August 1645 – 6 October 1646 |
Shaozong Template:Zhi |
Prince of Lu (Lou)[d] Template:Zhi |
Zhu Yihai Template:Zhi |
6 July 1618 – 23 December 1662 |
Jianguo Lu[29][f] Template:Zhi 16 February 1646 – 1653 |
Regent 7 September 1645 – 1653 |
– |
Prince of Tang Template:Zhi |
Zhu Yuyue Template:Zhi |
1605 – 20 January 1647 |
Shaowu Template:Zhi [g] |
Emperor 11 December 1646 – 20 January 1647 |
– |
Prince of Gui Template:Zhi |
Zhu Youlang Template:Zhi |
1 November 1623[22] – 1 June 1662[22] |
Yongli Template:Zhi 5 February 1647 – 1 June 1662 |
Emperor 24 December 1646 – 1 June 1662 |
Zhaozong Template:Zhi |
Posthumously recognized individuals
[编辑]This is a list of individuals who did not reign as emperor during their lifetime but were later recognized as Ming emperors posthumously.
Personal name (lifespan) |
Posthumous name | Temple name | Year recognized | Notes | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Zhu Bailiu Template:Zhi (?–?) |
Emperor Xuan Template:Zhi |
Dezu Template:Zhi |
1368 | Great-great-grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor | [30] |
Zhu Sijiu Template:Zhi (?–?) |
Emperor Heng Template:Zhi |
Yizu Template:Zhi |
Great-grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor | [30] | |
Zhu Chuyi Template:Zhi (?–?) |
Emperor Yu Template:Zhi |
Xizu Template:Zhi |
Grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor | [30] | |
Zhu Shizhen Template:Zhi (1281–1344) |
Emperor Chun Template:Zhi |
Renzu Template:Zhi |
Father of the Hongwu Emperor | [30] | |
Zhu Biao Template:Zhi (10 October 1355 – 17 May 1392) |
Emperor Xiaokang Template:Zhi |
Xingzong Template:Zhi |
1399 and 1644 |
Crown Prince who never acceded to the throne. Son of the Hongwu Emperor. Father of the Jianwen Emperor. Posthumously recognized as emperor by the Jianwen Emperor. However, in 1402, the Yongle Emperor, after overthrowing the Jianwen Emperor, abolished Zhu Biao's emperor status. It wasn't until two centuries later, in 1644, that Zhu Biao once again promoted to the status of emperor. |
[31][32][33] |
Zhu Youyuan 朱祐杬 (22 July 1476 – 13 July 1519) |
Emperor Xian Template:Zhi |
Ruizong Template:Zhi |
1538 | Father of the Jiajing Emperor | [31][33] |
Zhu Changxun Template:Zhi (22 February 1586 – 2 March 1641) |
Emperor Gong Template:Zhi and Emperor Xiao Template:Zhi |
Gongzong Template:Zhi |
1644 | Father of the Hongguang Emperor | [34][33] |
Zhu Yuwen Template:Zhi (1490–1560) |
Emperor Hui Template:Zhi |
– | 1645 | Great-great-grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors | [34] |
Zhu Zhouyong Template:Zhi (1538–1564) |
Emperor Shun Template:Zhi |
– | Great-grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors | [34] | |
Zhu Shuohuang Template:Zhi (? – 24 January 1630) |
Emperor Duan Template:Zhi |
– | Grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors | [34] | |
Zhu Qisheng Template:Zhi (?–1629) |
Emperor Xuan Template:Zhi |
– | Father of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors | [34] | |
Zhu Cilang Template:Zhi (26 February 1629 – June 1644) |
Emperor Dao Template:Zhi |
– | 1646 | Crown Prince who never acceded to the throne. Son of the Chongzhen Emperor. |
[35][33] |
Zhu Changying Template:Zhi (25 April 1597 – 21 December 1645) |
Emperor Duan Template:Zhi |
Lizong Template:Zhi |
Father of the Yongli Emperor | [34][33] |
Timeline
[编辑]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/zh/timeline/psfisish6xx9k093cfda62d5u5ehipq.png)
Legend:
- Orange denotes Ming emperors
- Cyan denotes Southern Ming emperors
See also
[编辑]- List of emperors of the Ming dynasty by length of reign
- List of Ming enthronements
- List of vassal prince peerages of the Ming dynasty
- Dynasties of China
- List of Chinese monarchs
- Southern Ming topics
Notes
[编辑]- ^ These are just the shortened versions of the names. The Hongwu Emperor's full posthumous name, for example, was actually "Emperor Kaitian Xingdao Zhaoji Liji Dasheng Zhishen Renwen Yiwu Junde Chenggong Gao" (Template:Zhi; 'Heaven-Opening, Way-Implementing, Dynasty-Founding, Pinnacle-Standing, Greatly Worthy, Most Holy, Benevolent, Cultivated, Rightteous, Martial, Refined,Virtuous, and Successful Exalted Emperor'[23]).
- ^ 2.0 2.1 After the Jianwen Emperor died in a palace fire, the Yongle Emperor ascended to the throne. In an attempt to diminish the legacy of his predecessor, he chose not to give him a temple name.[24] Additionally, he retroactively abolished the Jianwen era and extended the Hongwu era in its place.[25]
- ^ Emperor Yingzong was captured by the Mongols in 1449, and his brother, the Jingtai Emperor, ascended to the throne. After the Jingtai Emperor was deposed in a palace coup in 1457, Emperor Yingzong returned to the throne and declared a new era, Tianshun.
- ^ 4.0 4.1 The two characters are both pronounced Lu but with different tones; to distinguish them in Roman script, one is usually kept as Lu and the other spelled differently. Luh is from Cambridge History of China; Lou is from A.C. Moule's Rulers of China (1957). When one irregular spelling is used, the other is kept as regular (Lu). The two systems are distinct and not used simultaneously.
- ^ Sometimes referred to as the Regency of the Prince of Lu (Luh) (Template:Zhi; Lùwáng Jiānguó)
- ^ Not an actual era name, but used in place of an era name and served a similar function; Jianguo literally means "regency".
- ^ The era name Shaowu was originally planned to supersede Longwu in 1647, but the Shaowu Emperor's reign ended before the era name was put into effective use.
References
[编辑]Citations
[编辑]- ^ Fan (2016),第97頁.
- ^ Brook (2003),第290–291頁,Mingská Čína (Vladimír Liščák).
- ^ 3.0 3.1 Brook (2003),第293頁,Mingská Čína (Vladimír Liščák).
- ^ Dennerline (1985),第824–825頁.
- ^ Музей Гугун. Russian.china.org.cn. Beijing: China.org.cn. 30 July 2007 [27 April 2010] (Russian).
- ^ Brook (2010),第12頁.
- ^ Huang (1997),第189頁.
- ^ Huang (1997),第175頁.
- ^ Ch’ien (1982),第91頁.
- ^ 10.0 10.1 Ch’ien (1982),第93頁.
- ^ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Hucker (1966),第41頁.
- ^ Wilkinson (2000),第109–110頁.
- ^ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 Moule (1957),第106–109頁.
- ^ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Theobald, Ulrich. Chinese History - Names of Persons and Titles of Rulers. Chinaknowledge - a universal guide for China studies. 23 September 2011 [10 July 2013].
- ^ Chinese architecture | Ming Dynasty, Pagodas, Courtyards. Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^ Baud-Berthier 2003,第36–37頁 ; Elisseeff 2010,第251頁
- ^ Baud-Berthier (2003),第84–85頁.
- ^ Baud-Berthier (2003),第24–25頁.
- ^ Cheng (2009),第298頁.
- ^ Elisseeff (2010),第230–233頁.
- ^ Twitchett & Mote (1998),第16頁.
- ^ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 Goodrich & Fang (1976),第xxi頁.
- ^ Taylor (1975),第31頁.
- ^ Goodrich & Fang (1976),第397頁.
- ^ Tsai (2002),第88頁.
- ^ 26.0 26.1 Atwell (1988),第637頁.
- ^ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Moule (1957),第109頁.
- ^ 28.0 28.1 Twitchett & Mote (1988),第xxiii頁.
- ^ Bo (2010),第543頁.
- ^ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 Zhang (1739),vol. 2.
- ^ 31.0 31.1 Zhang (1739),vol. 115.
- ^ Qian (2016),vol. 7.
- ^ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 Twitchett & Mote (1988),第xxii頁.
- ^ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 34.5 Qian (2016),vols. 7 and 26.
- ^ Qian (2016),vol. 26.
Works cited
[编辑]- Zhang, Tingyu. Ming Shi 明史 [History of Ming]. 1739.
- Fan, C. Simon. Culture, Institution, and Development in China: The economics of national character 1st. Routledge. 2016. ISBN 9780367374648.
- Dennerline, Jerry P. The Southern Ming, 1644–1662. By Lynn A. Struve. The Journal of Asian Studies. 1985, 44 (4). JSTOR 2056469. S2CID 162510092. doi:10.2307/2056469.
- Brook, Timothy. Čtvero ročních období dynastie Ming: Čína v období 1368–1644 [The Confusions of Pleasure]. 由Liščák, Vladimír翻译 1st. Praha: Vyšehrad. 2003. ISBN 80-7021-583-6 (Czech).
- Langlois, John D. The Hung-wu reign, 1368-1398. Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis C (编). The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1988. ISBN 0521243327.
- Huang, Ray. China: a macro history. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe. 1997. ISBN 1-56324-730-5.
- Ch’ien, Mu. Traditional government in imperial China: a critical analysis. 由Hsüeh, Chün-tu; Totten, George O.翻译. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press. 1982. ISBN 962-201-254-X.
- Hucker, Charles O. The censorial system of Ming China. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 1966. ISBN 0-8047-0289-6.
- Wilkinson, Endymion Porter. Chinese history: a manual. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Asia Center. 2000. ISBN 0-674-00247-4.
- Brook, Timothy. The troubled empire: China in the Yuan and Ming dynasties. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 2010. ISBN 978-0-674-04602-3.
- Cheng, Linsun. Berkshire Encyclopedia of China (5-volume set, 2,800 pages). Berkshire Publishing Group. 2009. ISBN 9780977015948.
- Baud-Berthier, Gilles; et al. La vie des Chinois au temps des Ming (L'Histoire au quotidien). Paris: Larousse. 2003. ISBN 978-2035053763 (French).
- Elisseeff, Danielle. Histoire de l'art: la Chine : des Song (960) à la fin de l'Empire (1912). Paris: RMN. 2010. ISBN 978-2-7118-5520-9 (French).
- Goodrich, L. Carington; Fang, Chaoying. Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368-1644. New York: Columbia University Press. 1976. ISBN 0-231-03801-1.
- Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry. Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle. Seattle, Wash.; Chesham: University of Washington Press; Combined Academic. 2002. ISBN 0295981245.
- Twitchett, Denis C; Mote, Frederick W. (编). The Cambridge History of China. Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty 1368-1644, Part II. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1998. ISBN 0521243335.
- Moule, Arthur Christopher. The rulers of China, 221 B.C.- A.D. 1949; chronological tables. New York: F. A. Praeger. 1957.
- Atwell, William. The T'ai-ch'ang, T'ien-ch'i, and Ch'ung-chen reigns, 1620–1644. Twitchett, Denis C; Mote, Frederick W. (编). The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1988: 585–640. ISBN 0521243327.
- Twitchett, Denis C; Mote, Frederick W. (编). The Cambridge History of China. Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty 1368-1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1988. ISBN 0521243327.
- Taylor, Romeyn. Basic Annals of Ming T'ai-tsu. Chinese Material and Research Aids Service Center, Inc. 1975. ASIN B076VFSKS1.
- Bo, Yang. Bo Yang quanji: Lishi juan 柏杨全集:历史卷 [The Complete Works of Bo Yang: History Volume] 16. Beijing: People's Literature Publishing House. 2010. ISBN 9787020080014 (Chinese).
- Qian, Haiyue. Nan Ming Shi 南明史 [History of the Southern Ming]. Beijing: Zhonghua Book. 2016. ISBN 9787101044294 (Chinese).
Further reading
[编辑]- Heer, Ph. de. The Care-taker Emperor : Aspects of the Imperial Institution in Fifteenth-century China as Reflected in the Political History of the Reign of Chu Chʾi-yü. Leiden: Brill. 1986. ISBN 9004078983.
External links
[编辑]- Theobald, Ulrich. Chinese History - Ming Dynasty 明朝 (1368-1644) emperors and rulers. Chinaknowledge - a universal guide for China studies. [10 January 2010].
Template:Ming emperors Template:Ming dynasty topics
. . Ming Category:Lists of leaders of China Category:Lists of Chinese people
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