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强奸与性别

强奸与性别的关系是犯罪学上研究强奸的领域之一,即研究不同类型的强奸中,强奸者与受害者在性与性别英语Sex and gender distinction上的不同,其广义范围还包括研究性侵犯。多数的研究表示,强奸的犯罪者大多为男性,且远远高于女性;然而、美国联邦调查局在2012年将强奸的定义扩大后,有越来越多的研究把焦点放在被强奸的男性与强奸男性的女性。

有记录的性暴力数据远比真实发生的性暴力还要少很多[1][2],因此计算出准确的强奸统计数据是很困难的。定罪率则因为犯罪者和受害者的性别而异,不少研究认为男性对男性、以及女性对女性的监狱强奸英语Prison rape十分普遍,且可能是最少被人所知的[3][4][5]。而当受害者的年纪低于最低合法性交年龄时所发生的强奸案也引发儿童性虐待法定强奸的问题。

性别差异

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根据一项美国在2001年做出的全国青少年风险行为调查,有10.2%的女孩和5.1%的男孩表示“曾在不愿意的情况下被暴力强迫进行性行为”[6]。而一份2010年的研究则表示,在存在性强迫英语Sexual coercion的异性恋夫妻中,女性受害占45%、男性受害占30%、互相受害则占了20%[7]。2011年,由西班牙教育与科学部所资助的一项研究在任意抽样了32个国家共13877名学生后并进行调查后,发现其中2.4%的男性和1.8%的女性在过去一年内曾以暴力强迫某人进行性行为[8],而在2014年一项对18030名美国高中生的研究指出,男性与女性在被强迫进行性行为的数据上没有统计差异。[9]

对女性的强奸

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依据2000年一份英格兰和威尔士内政部的研究,约有5%的女性表示自己在16岁以后至少有一次被强奸的经验。[10]

2011年,美国疾病控制与预防中心(CDC)发现在美国有将近20%的女性于一生当中有被强奸过或被企图强奸,其中超过三分之一的受害者是在18岁以前被强奸。[11][12]

而根据CDC在2013年的报告,在受害者中有28%的异性恋女性和在全体中有48%的双性恋女性于11岁至17岁之间遭受到人生中第一次强奸。[13]

男性对女性的强奸

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由于“害怕遭到凶手报复”[14]、“让女人以某种方式被责怪的羞耻感和深层次文化观念”[15],大多数男性对女性的强奸被没有被举报。而根据英国萨里大学的研究员估计,在男性强奸女性的案例里、每七件仅有一件被举报给警察。[16]

强奸可能会造成怀孕英语Pregnancy from rape,在不同的情境中,这个比例有很大的不同,尤其取决于非屏障式避孕法的使用程度。依据对埃塞俄比亚青少年的研究发现,在被强奸的人中有17%在被强奸后而怀孕[17],类似的数据还有墨西哥强奸危机中心所得出的15%至18%。[18][19]。而一项对4000名美国女性进行的长期研究发现,在12岁至45岁的受害者中,每一次的强奸有5.0%的几率会造成其怀孕,全美国每年女性因为强奸而怀孕的案例达32000件[20]。在童年或年轻时遭受强迫性行为的经验可能会使得女性将自己的性欲视为自己可操控事物的能力。[21][22][23][24]

在战争上,由男人对女人施行强奸已是行之有年的恐怖武器(见战争时期的性暴力)。[25]

女性对女性的强奸

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女性可以透过指交口交摩擦阴部、使用假阴茎、其它性玩具或其它各种物品来强行刺激另一名女性的生殖器或其它性感带[26][27][28]。根据美国疾病控制与预防中心在2010年进行的电话访查发现,43.8%的女同性恋表示自己曾被亲密伴侣强奸、身体虐待或跟踪;其中有67.4%的人表示加害者为一名女性,而有13.1%的女同性恋者表示她们曾有被强奸过的经验,不过并没有表示强奸者的性别[29]加利福尼亚反性侵联盟英语California Coalition Against Sexual Assault在2005年进行了一项调查,其结论是有三分之一的女同性恋者因为曾被另一名女性性攻击,而不敢出柜、不信任警察和/或冷漠、有敌意地对待警察,不愿意成为LGBT社群的成员,而且被女性强奸的女性认为自己遭受强奸的经验和被男性强奸的经验是不一样的,因此不愿意将自己的经验表达给其它女性知道[30]。在2005年,美国麻州史密斯学院发生了一起案件,两名女子被指控强奸另一名女子的案件,但受害者最终拒绝作证,因而使指控无效。[31][32]

对男性的强奸

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根据CDC在2010年的一项调查,在美国每71名男子里就有1人在其一生中被强奸或被试图强奸过,而且每21名男子中就有1名是被亲密伴侣或熟人所强奸[33] [34]。而在波士顿大学公共卫生学院英语Boston University School of Public Health进行的另一项研究中,有30%的同性恋男子和双性恋男子表示他们一生中曾经有至少一次被性侵犯的经验。[35]

与强奸女性相同,强奸男性也被视为战争武器之一。[36]

男性在大学校园内遭受性攻击也很普遍,在校园里每16位男子中就有一位是性攻击的幸存者,虽然这个比例相对较高,但由于许多人有着对性暴力和性别的先入为主观念,将遭受性攻击误解为女性问题,因而没有将相关情事述说出来。[37]

在某些情况下,被性侵犯的男性会愿意说出经历与过程,例如2015年的美国电影《狩猎场 (电影)英语The Hunting Ground》所示,这是一部关于处理大学校园性侵案件及大学管理失当的纪录片。

传统刑法理论也认为,强奸罪的实行主体只能是男性,女性只能成为强奸罪的教唆犯或帮助犯,但不能单独构成强奸罪。中华人民共和国等国的法律就体现了这一观点。但近年来,日本加拿大德国法国意大利中华民国都对相应刑法罪名作出了调整,使得男性也可以成为强奸罪的被害对象。[38]

男性对男性的强奸

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被男性强奸对男性而言一直是被强烈污名化的,根据心理学家萨拉‧克罗尔(Sarah Crome)博士的研究表示,被男性强奸的男性受害者多数会选择沉默,只有不到十分之一会将此事述说出来。整体而言,男性强奸受害者也缺乏支持的管道,法律或制度对此种犯罪的处理方式也不见得周全。[39]

一些研究认为,男性对男性的监狱强奸和女性对女性的监狱强奸是比一般人群中常见的强奸类型更为普遍[note 1][note 2][note 3]而男性强奸男性已经被视为战争中的恐怖武器[36]。研究记录显示,在乌干达、智利、希腊、克罗地亚、伊朗、科威特、前苏联和前南斯拉夫有战争中将男性强奸男性作为战争或政治侵略武器的记录。在1980年一项对萨尔瓦多男性政治犯的调查中发现,有76%的受访者表示曾有过至少一次的性酷刑。而一项对萨拉热窝6000名集中营囚犯的研究发现,有80%的男性曾被强奸[36]。而在叙利亚内战(2011年至今)的案例中,有男囚在待处决期间遭受性虐待,例如被迫坐在碎玻璃瓶上,再把一袋水挂在他的生殖器上,或是被迫强奸另一名待处决的男囚,供官员们观看享乐。[40]

女性对男性的强奸

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被女性施以性虐待的男性通常会面临社会、政治和法律的双重标准[41][42]。在美国,此类案件受到越来越多的关注并引起大众讨论,当男性受害者在没有表达明确同意下就插入女性并成为强奸受害者时,这样的情况有时会被称为“穿透”事件(made to penetrate)。很多时后,男性会因为在药物的作用下成为性攻击的对象,例如在雪拉‧罗丝(Cierra Ross)的案子里[43],一名男子在芝加哥遭受性攻击,该事件在美国广受关注,而罗丝也被判犯下性虐待和武装抢劫,保释金75000美金。

在英国,1970年代的摩门教教会里发生了一连串案例,使女性强奸男性的可能性提高。1977年,一名年轻的摩门教传教士科力克·安德森(Kirk Anderson)在萨里郡的教会[44],数日后,安德森向警方报案,他表示自己被绑架并锁在床上,乔伊斯·伯南·麦金尼(Joyce Bernann McKinney)试图强奸他[45][46][47][48][49]。由于涉及女子强奸男子,这则不常见的事件引起新闻广泛关注[50]。麦金尼逃到美国后,英国法庭判处麦金尼监禁一年[51]。根据1956年时的法律,由于受害者的性别,在法律上没有构成强奸罪,不过仍适用非礼[52]

包括未成年儿童在内,一些男性受害者会因为被强奸,而让女强奸犯怀孕,进而被迫支付强奸者的孩子的抚养费,如爱马士曼诉沙耶案英语Hermesmann v. Seyer中的受害人。[53][54][55]同样,在中华人民共和国的法律解释中,由于女性单方面决定生育不构成对男性生育权的侵犯,因此即使男性不同意生育,也需负担此后孩子的抚养费。[56]

注释

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  1. ^ Human Rights Watch No Escape: Male Rape In U.S. Prisons. Part VII. Anomaly or Epidemic: The Incidence of Prisoner-on-Prisoner Rape.页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆); estimates that 100,000–140,000 violent male-male rapes occur in U.S. prisons annually; compare with FBI statistics页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) that estimated 90,000 violent male-female rapes occur annually.
  2. ^ Robert W. Dumond, "Ignominious Victims: Effective Treatment of Male Sexual Assault in Prison," August 15, 1995, p. 2; states that "evidence suggests that [male-male sexual assault in prison] may a staggering problem"). Quoted in Mariner, Joanne; (Organization), Human Rights Watch. No escape: male rape in U.S. prisons. Human Rights Watch. 2001-04-17: 370 [7 June 2010]. ISBN 978-1-56432-258-6. 
  3. ^ Struckman-Johnson, Cindy; Struckman-Johnson, David. A Comparison of Sexual Coercion Experiences Reported by Men and Women in Prison. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 2006, 21 (12): 1591–1615. ISSN 0886-2605. PMID 17065656. doi:10.1177/0886260506294240. ; reports that "Greater percentages of men (70%) than women (29%) reported that their incident resulted in oral, vaginal, or anal sex. More men (54%) than women (28%) reported an incident that was classified as rape."

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  56. ^ 北京市海淀区人民法院. 女性单方面决定生育不构成对男性生育权的侵犯. 中国法院网. 北京. [2017-08-24]. (原始内容存档于2017-08-24) (中文(中国大陆)). 
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强奸与性别
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