Rinaxximent
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Ir-Rinaxximent huwa perjodu fl-istorja Ewropea li jimmarka t-tranżizzjoni mill-Medju Evu għall-modernità u li jkopri s-sekli 15 u 16, ikkaratterizzati minn sforz biex jitqanqlu u jiġu superati l-ideat u l-kisbiet tal-antikità klassika. Seħħ wara l-Kriżi tal-Medju Evu Aħħari u kien assoċjat ma' tibdil soċjali kbir. Minbarra l-perjodizzazzjoni standard, proponenti ta' "Rinaxximent twil" isostnu li beda fis-seklu 14 u ntemm fis-seklu 17.[1]
Il-fehma tradizzjonali tiffoka iktar fuq l-aspetti moderni bikrin tar-Rinaxximent u targumenta li kien tbegħid mill-imgħoddi, iżda bosta storiċi llum jiffukaw iktar fuq l-aspetti Medjevali tiegħu u jargumentaw li kien estensjoni tal-Medju Evu.[2][3] Madankollu, fil-bidu tal-perjodu – ir-Rinaxximent Bikri tas-seklu 15 u l-Proto-Rinaxximent Taljan tal-ħabta tal-1250 jew l-1300 – jirkbu b'konsiderevoli fuq xulxin mal-Medju Evu Aħħari, datat konvenzjonalment għall-ħabta tal-1250-1500, u l-Medju Evu stess kien perjodu twil mimli bidliet gradwali, bħall-epoka moderna; u bħala perjodu ta' tranżizzjoni bejn iż-żewġ perjodi, ir-Rinaxximent għandu similaritajiet mat-tnejn li huma, speċjalment mas-subperjodi aħħarin u bikrin tagħhom.
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Il-bażi intellettwali tar-Rinaxximent kienet il-verżjoni tiegħu tal-umaniżmu, li oriġina mill-kunċett Ruman ta' humanitas u l-iskoperta mill-ġdid tal-filosofija Griega klassika, bħal dik ta' Protagora, li qal li "l-bniedem huwa l-kejl ta' kollox". Dan il-ħsieb ġdid ġie manifestat fl-arti, fl-arkitettura, fil-politika, fix-xjenza u fil-letteratura. Eżempji bikrin kienu l-iżvilupp tal-perspettiva fil-pittura biż-żejt u l-għarfien imqanqal ta' kif jiġi prodott il-konkos. Għalkemm l-invenzjoni tat-tipa mobbli tal-metall ħaffet it-tixrid tal-ideat mill-aħħar tas-seklu 15, il-bidliet tar-Rinaxximent ma kinux uniformi madwar l-Ewropa: l-ewwel traċċi feġġew fl-Italja saħansitra fl-aħħar tas-seklu 13, b'mod partikolari l-kitbiet ta' Dante u l-pitturi ta' Giotto.
Bħala moviment kulturali, ir-Rinaxximent kien jinkorpora t-tkattir tal-letteratura Latina u vernakulari, l-ewwel nett permezz tal-apprendiment fis-seklu 14 ibbażat fuq sorsi klassiċi, li l-kontemporanji akkreditaw lil Petrarka; l-iżvilupp tal-perspettiva lineari u tekniki oħra li jwasslu għal realtà iktar naturali fil-pittura; u r-riforma edukattiva gradwali iżda mifruxa. Fil-politika, ir-Rinaxximent ikkontribwiet għall-iżvilupp tad-drawwiet u tal-konvenzjonijiet tad-diplomazija, u fix-xjenza għal iktar dipendenza fuq l-osservazzjoni u r-raġunament intuwittiv. Għalkemm fir-Rinaxximent seħħew rivoluzzjonijiet f'bosta oqsma intellettwali u xjentifiċi soċjali, kif ukoll l-introduzzjoni tas-sistema bankarja moderna u l-qasam tal-kontabilità,[4] x'aktarx li huwa magħruf l-iktar għall-iżviluppi artistiċi u l-kontributi tiegħu minn artisti famużi bħal Leonardo da Vinci u Michelangelo, li ispiraw it-terminu "raġel Rinaxximentali".[5][6]
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Ir-Rinaxximent beda f'Firenze, wieħed mill-bosta stati tal-Italja.[7] Ġew proposti diversi teoriji dwar l-oriġini u l-karatteristiċi tiegħu, b'enfasi fuq varjetà ta' fatturi, inkluż il-karatteristiċi soċjali u ċiviċi ta' Firenze ta' dak iż-żmien: l-istruttura politika, il-patrunaġġ tal-familja dominanti, il-Medici,[8] u l-migrazzjoni tal-istudjużi Griegi u tat-testi tagħhom lejn l-Italja wara l-waqgħa ta' Kostantinopli f'idejn it-Torok Ottomani.[9][10][11] Ċentri ewlenin oħra kienu Venezja, Genoa, Milan, Ruma matul il-Papat Rinaxximentali, u Napli. Mill-Italja, ir-Rinaxximent infirex mal-Ewropa kollha, l-ewwel lejn l-Ungerija (fis-sekli 14 u 15) u lejn Franza, Spanja, il-Portugall, il-Fjandri, l-artijiet Ġermaniżi, il-Polonja, ir-Renju Unit, l-Irlanda u lil hinn.
Ir-Rinaxximent għandu storjografija twila u kumplessa, u skont ix-xettiċiżmu ġenerali ta' perjodizzazzjonijiet diskreti, kien hemm ħafna dibattiti fost l-istoriċi b'reazzjoni għall-glorifikazzjoni tar-"Rinaxximent" fis-seklu 19 u ta' eroj kulturali individwali bħala "rġiel Rinaxximentali", u ddubitaw dwar l-utilità tar-Rinaxximent bħala terminu u bħala referenza storika.[12] Xi osservaturi ddubitaw jekk ir-Rinaxximent kienx "avvanz" kulturali mill-Medju Evu, u minflok rawh bħala perjodu ta' pessimiżmu u nostalġija għall-antikità klassika, filwaqt li l-istoriċi soċjali u ekonomiċi, speċjalment tal-longue durée, minflok iffukaw fuq il-kontinwità bejn iż-żewġ eri, li huma interkonnessi, kif josserva Panofsky, "minn elf rabta".[13][14]
It-terminu rinascita ("twelid mill-ġdid") tfaċċa għall-ewwel darba fil-Ħajjiet tal-Artisti ta' Giorgio Vasari (għall-ħabta tal-1550), li nbidel f'"Rinaxximent" fis-snin 30 tas-seklu 19. It-terminu ġie estiż ukoll għal movimenti storiċi u kulturali oħra, bħar-Rinaxximent Karolinġju (is-sekli 8 u 9), ir-Rinaxximent Ottonjan (is-sekli 10 u 11), u r-Rinaxximent tas-seklu 12.[15]
Sorsi ġenerali
[immodifika | immodifika s-sors]- Burckhardt, Jacob, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860).
- Cartledge, Bryan (2011). The Will to Survive: A History of Hungary. C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 978-1849041126.
- E. Kovács, Péter (1990). Matthias Corvinus (in Hungarian). Officina Nova. ISBN 9637835490.
- Engel, Pál (2001). The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526. I.B. Tauris Publishers. ISBN 1860640613.
- Hendrix, Scott E. (2013). "Astrological forecasting and the Turkish menace in the Renaissance Balkans" (PDF). Anthropology. Universitatis Miskolciensis. 13 (2): 57–72. ISSN 1452-7243.
- Klaniczay, Tibor (1992). "The age of Matthias Corvinus". In Porter, Roy; Teich, Mikuláš (eds.). The Renaissance in National Context. Cambridge University Press. pp. 164–179. ISBN 0521369703.
- Kubinyi, András (2008). Matthias Rex. Balassi Kiadó. ISBN 978-9635067671.
- Reynolds, L. D.; Wilson, Nigel (1974). Scribes and Scholars: A Guide to the Transmission of Greek and Latin Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0199686339. OL 26919731M.
- Tanner, Marcus (2009). The Raven King: Matthias Corvinus and the Fate of his Lost Library. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300158281.
Iktar qari
[immodifika | immodifika s-sors]- Cronin, Vincent (1969), The Flowering of the Renaissance, ISBN 0712698841.
- Cronin, Vincent (1992), The Renaissance, ISBN 0002154110.
- Campbell, Gordon. The Oxford Dictionary of the Renaissance. (2003). 862 pp.
- Davis, Robert C. Renaissance People: Lives that Shaped the Modern Age. (2011). ISBN 978-1606060780.
- Ergang, Robert (1967), The Renaissance, ISBN 0442023197.
- Ferguson, Wallace K. (1962), [Europe in Transition, 1300–1500], ISBN 0049400088.
- Fisher, Celia. Flowers of the Renaissance. (2011). ISBN 978-1606060629.
- Fletcher, Stella. The Longman Companion to Renaissance Europe, 1390–1530. (2000). 347 pp.
- Grendler, Paul F., ed. The Renaissance: An Encyclopedia for Students. (2003). 970 pp.
- Hale, John. The Civilization of Europe in the Renaissance. (1994). 648 pp.
- Hall, Bert S. Weapons and Warfare in Renaissance Europe: Gunpowder, Technology, and Tactics (2001).
- Hattaway, Michael, ed. A Companion to English Renaissance Literature and Culture. (2000). 747 pp.
- Jensen, De Lamar (1992), Renaissance Europe, ISBN 0395889472.
- Johnson, Paul. The Renaissance: A Short History. (2000). 197 pp.
- Keene, Bryan C. Gardens of the Renaissance. (2013). ISBN 978-1606061435.
- King, Margaret L. Women of the Renaissance (1991).
- Kristeller, Paul Oskar, and Michael Mooney. Renaissance Thought and its Sources (1979).
- Nauert, Charles G. Historical Dictionary of the Renaissance. (2004). 541 pp.
- Patrick, James A., ed. Renaissance and Reformation (5 vol 2007), 1584 pages; comprehensive encyclopedia.
- Plumb, J.H. The Italian Renaissance (2001).
- Paoletti, John T. and Gary M. Radke. Art in Renaissance Italy (4th ed. 2011).
- Potter, G.R. ed. The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 1: The Renaissance, 1493–1520 (1957).
- Robin, Diana; Larsen, Anne R.; and Levin, Carole, eds. Encyclopedia of Women in the Renaissance: Italy, France, and England (2007) 459 pp.
- Rowse, A.L. The Elizabethan Renaissance: The Life of the Society (2000).
- Ruggiero, Guido. The Renaissance in Italy: A Social and Cultural History of the Rinascimento (Cambridge University Press, 2015). 648 pp.
- Rundle, David, ed. The Hutchinson Encyclopedia of the Renaissance. (1999). 434 pp.
- Turner, Richard N. Renaissance Florence (2005).
- Ward, A. The Cambridge Modern History. Vol 1: The Renaissance (1902); older essays by scholars; emphasis on politics.
Storjografija
[immodifika | immodifika s-sors]- Bouwsma, William J. "The Renaissance and the drama of Western history." American Historical Review (1979): 1–15.
- Caferro, William. Contesting the Renaissance (2010).
- Ferguson, Wallace K. "The Interpretation of the Renaissance: Suggestions for a Synthesis." Journal of the History of Ideas (1951): 483–495.
- Ferguson, Wallace K. "Recent trends in the economic historiography of the Renaissance." Studies in the Renaissance (1960): 7–26.
- Ferguson, Wallace Klippert. The Renaissance in historical thought (AMS Press, 1981).
- Grendler, Paul F. "The Future of Sixteenth Century Studies: Renaissance and Reformation Scholarship in the Next Forty Years", Sixteenth Century Journal Spring 2009, Vol. 40 Issue 1, pp. 182.
- Murray, Stuart A.P. The Library: An Illustrated History. American Library Association, Chicago, 2012.
- Ruggiero, Guido, ed. A Companion to the Worlds of the Renaissance. (2002). 561 pp.
- Starn, Randolph. "A Postmodern Renaissance?" Renaissance Quarterly 2007 60(1): 1–24 in Project MUSE.
- Summit, Jennifer. "Renaissance Humanism and the Future of the Humanities". Literature Compass (2012) 9#10 pp: 665–678.
- Trivellato, Francesca. "Renaissance Italy and the Muslim Mediterranean in Recent Historical Work", Journal of Modern History (March 2010), 82#1 pp: 127–155.
- Woolfson, Jonathan, ed. Palgrave advances in Renaissance historiography (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).
Sorsi primarji
[immodifika | immodifika s-sors]- Bartlett, Kenneth, ed. The Civilization of the Italian Renaissance: A Sourcebook (2nd ed., 2011).
- Ross, James Bruce, and Mary M. McLaughlin, eds. The Portable Renaissance Reader (1977).
Referenzi
[immodifika | immodifika s-sors]- ^ Hageman, Elizabeth H., in Women and Literature in Britain, 1500-1700, p. 190, 1996, ed. Helen Wilcox, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521467773.
- ^ Monfasani, John (2016). Renaissance Humanism, from the Middle Ages to Modern Times. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1351904391.
- ^ Boia, Lucian (2004). Forever Young: A Cultural History of Longevity. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1861891549.
- ^ Diwan, Jaswith. Accounting Concepts & Theories. Londra: Morre. pp. 1–2.
- ^ "BBC Science | Learn about Leonardo da Vinci". www.bbc.co.uk. Miġbur 2023-08-16.
- ^ "BBC - History - Michelangelo". www.bbc.co.uk (bl-Ingliż). Miġbur 2023-08-16.
- ^ Burke, P., The European Renaissance: Centre and Peripheries, 1998.
- ^ Strathern, Paul The Medici: Godfathers of the Renaissance (2003).
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, "Renaissance", 2008, O.Ed.
- ^ Harris, Michael H. History of Libraries in the Western World, Scarecrow Press Incorporate, 1999, p. 69, ISBN 0810837242.
- ^ Norwich, John Julius, A Short History of Byzantium, 1997, Knopf, ISBN 0679450882.
- ^ Brotton, J., The Renaissance: A Very Short Introduction, OUP, 2006 ISBN 0192801635.
- ^ Starn, Randolph (1998). "Renaissance Redux". The American Historical Review. 103 (1): 122–124.
- ^ Panofsky, 1969:6.
- ^ Murray, P. and Murray, L. (1963) The Art of the Renaissance. Londra: Thames & Hudson (World of Art), p. 9. ISBN 978-0500200087.
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